In the final stage of the Iran–Iraq War, Kurdish armed groups strengthened their foothold in southern Kurdistan, challenging Baghdad’s authority. Forces aligned with the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and Kurdistan Democratic Party gained control of large rural areas, at times coordinating with Iranian forces.
The Iraqi government responded with a decisive military campaign aimed at crushing the insurgency.
A coordinated military offensive
The Anfal campaign, launched in February 1988, was directed by Ali Hassan al-Majid. Iraqi forces carried out a coordinated strategy combining ground assaults, aerial bombardment, and forced population displacement.
Entire villages were systematically destroyed, with an estimated 1,200 settlements wiped out. Civilians were the primary victims, as thousands were detained, deported, or executed.
Chemical attacks and civilian Impact
One of the most notorious incidents occurred in the Kurdish town of Halabja in March 1988, where chemical weapons killed thousands of civilians in a single day.
Across multiple phases of the campaign, Iraqi forces used chemical agents in rural المناطق, often targeting villages suspected of supporting Kurdish fighters. Survivors describe tactics involving false promises of amnesty, followed by arrest and disappearance.
Mass displacement and detention
Large segments of the Kurdish population were forcibly relocated. Many were sent to detention facilities in remote desert areas, while others were confined to controlled settlements.
The campaign also coincided with state-led demographic changes in strategic regions such as Kirkuk, where Kurdish residents were displaced and Arab populations resettled.
Death toll and legal dispute
The number of casualties remains uncertain. According to Human Rights Watch, at least 50,000 people were killed, though some estimates are significantly higher, with Kurdish sources claiming as many as 182,000 victims.
While many scholars and advocacy groups classify the campaign as genocide, a 2007 ruling by a court in The Hague concluded that available evidence did not meet the legal threshold required to confirm that designation.
By late 1988, Iraqi authorities declared the campaign complete, having largely subdued Kurdish resistance. Survivors were later allowed to return following the 1991 uprisings, though many communities had been permanently altered.
Today, the Anfal campaign remains a central element of Kurdish collective memory and identity, symbolizing both profound loss and resilience.
Accountability and trials
Legal efforts to hold perpetrators accountable have continued for decades. In 2005, Dutch national Frans van Anraat was convicted for supplying materials used in chemical attacks.
Meanwhile, Saddam Hussein faced trial for crimes committed during his rule, including those linked to Anfal, though debates over the campaign’s legal classification persist.
